Introduction

Shukūh Qāsimniyā, whose original name is Fātimah Hamadānī Qāsimniyā, is an Iranian author of children’s fiction and poetry who has been actively engaged in a wide range of creative endeavours, including poetry, fiction, adaptations of classical literary texts, dramatic literature, and alphabet primers, all of which address a broad spectrum of issues related to childhood. She has made significant contributions to the evolution of poetry for young readers, and her poems stand out for their profound use of inspiration from the quintessential experiences of childhood, capturing children’s emotions and imaginations, and positioning her work as an exemplary paradigm of children’s poetry.¹Sūfiyā Mahmūdī, Adabistān: Farhang-i adabiyāt-i kūdak va nujavān [Adabistān: The encyclopedia of children’s and adolescent literature] (Tehran: Farhang-i nashr-i naw in collaboration with Nashr-i āsīm, 1392/2013), 129. In (at least) some of her poems, she portrays the child as an entity who is endowed with an imaginative power markedly and unequivocally stronger than that of adults. She recognizes the distinct world of children and strives to lend authenticity to their needs.²Murtizā Khusrunizhad, Farhang-i adabiyāt-i kūdak [Children’s literature encyclopedia] (Unpublished manuscript, 1382/2003), 29.

Qāsimniyā’s focus on children’s poetry encompasses realms such as resistance literature,³Resistance literature has been defined in various ways, each shaped by its specific context. One of the most frequently cited definition of Iranian resistance literature is that of Sangarī, who describes it as a branch of literature written under circumstances such as oppression, domestic tyranny, war, military occupation, and the suppression of social freedoms. It is distinguished by its themes of defiance against forces opposed to liberty and its struggle against injustice. Common motifs in resistance literature include articulating the suffering of marginalized and oppressed groups who have fallen victim to authoritarian regimes, inspiring hope for resilience and liberation, honouring those who have sacrificed their lives for freedom, and offering a vision of eventual victory. These works often reflect the deep concern of their authors for a generation at risk of losing its identity, consumed by self-interest and comfort, and detached from the struggles of their people. Through their works, writers of resistance literature strive to defend their homeland, invoke mythological symbols, and advocate for the betterment of society. This genre finds expression in both poetry and prose, serving as a powerful medium for resistance and renewal (Muhammadrizā Sangarī, 1383/2004, 45). Sangarī discusses the general characteristics of resistance literature and its manifestations across various nations. One category in his classification highlights the resistance literature of the Iranian Islamic Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War, including poetry that captures the experiences and spirit of the war, which he refers to as Sacred Defence poetry. For the purposes of this article, resistance literature is defined as a body of poetry and writings that emerged in the revolutionary era, portraying the Iranian people’s resistance against the Pahlavi regime, their aspirations for revolution, and the experiences of the Iran-Iraq War. religion, mysticism, and nature, among other elements that enrich both the individual and the national consciousness. The luminescence of her collection crafts a kaleidoscopic narrative in which the mundane meets the religious, mystical, and national. This approach not only elevates her poetry as an artistic achievement but also underscores its significance from a sociocultural discursive perspective. In exploring the aforementioned realms, Qāsimniyā’s work becomes a vital component of Iranian cultural memory, embedding itself within the collective consciousness, serving as a repository of social and cultural narratives, reinforcing the role of literature in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage across generations. Given the significant impact of Shukūh Qāsimniyā’s poetry on Iranian cultural memory, this article examines this specific aspect of her contribution. To this end, the article begins with a brief introduction to Shukūh Qāsimniyā’s life and works, followed by an investigation of the geographical significance of her poetry within the context of Iranian cultural memory, encompassing themes of revolution and war, religion, folklore, and nature. Using concepts from sociological cultural memory theories,⁴Memory is a collection of material and immaterial cultural elements that are either remembered or forgotten by a group, community, ethnicity, or nation. See Astrid Erll, Cultural Memory Studies: An International and Interdisciplinary Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2008), 1–19, 141–51; Jeffrey K. Olick and Joyce Robbins, “Social Memory Studies: From Collective Memory to the Historical Sociology of Mnemonic Practices,” Annual Review of Sociology 24, no. 1 (1998): 105–40; Jeffrey K. Olick, Vered Vinitzky-Seroussi, and Daniel Levy, eds. The Collective Memory Reader (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011),139–56, 193–8. this study examines various instances within Qāsimniyā’s poetry as they relate to the geography of contemporary Iranian cultural memory. The concepts used throughout the article include nostalgia,⁵In the literature on memory, nostalgia refers to a process through which an individual, community, or society selectively recalls and remembers the past in a particular way. This process is accompanied by a sense of attachment and longing for the chosen past. In the era of media, nostalgia has acquired new, especially commercial, dimensions. This phenomenon transcends national borders and operates on a global scale. See Katharina Niemeyer and Emma Keightley, “The Commodification of Time and Memory: Online Communities and the Dynamics of Commercially Produced Nostalgia,” New Media & Society 22, no. 9 (2020): 1639–62. trauma,⁶Members of the strong program in sociological cultural memory interpret certain events as collective traumas. These experiences are transformed into “cultural trauma” through the creation of dualities: victims and those to blame. Each social and cultural group affected by “collective trauma” constructs its own narrative, rooted in the dual opposition of victim and perpetrator. This binary framework, often mythologized, is used to mobilize power and foster solidarity and empathy among group members. At the same time, the process of reconstructing the collective past remains fluid, continuously shaped by contemporary understandings of identity. Consequently, cultural traumas exert long-lasting effects, not only on collective memory but also on the collective identity of the groups involved. See Jeffrey C. Alexander, Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); A Social Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 2012). politics of memory,⁷A collection of material and immaterial cultural practices, such as ceremonies and publications, undertaken by authorities to promote the remembrance or deliberate forgetting of specific memories. See Olick, Vinitzky-Seroussi, and Levy, 271–5; 407–11; 104–10. and memory projects, artificial memory,⁸Any form of human-made memory that is constructed and disseminated through media can be referred to as artificial memory. This form of memory has expanded significantly in the digital age, transcending national borders. See Alison Landsberg, “Prosthetic Memory: The Ethics and Politics of Memory in an Age of Mass Culture,” in Memory and Popular Film (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2018), 144–61. generational memory,⁹Memory elements that are recalled or forgotten by a generation in demographic, chronological, and cultural terms. These elements can include figures, books, songs, films, TV shows, and popular music. This concept is closely linked to nostalgia. See Erll, 119–27; Olick, Vinitzky-Seroussi, and Levy, 92–99. literature as memory-making medium and the role of symbols in shaping cultural memory,¹⁰Astrid Erll views literature as a “memory-maker” because it actively shapes, preserves, and transmits cultural memory. Literature not only reflects the past but also reinterprets it, evoking emotional connections and bridging generations. It transforms how societies remember and understand historical events, making it a powerful tool for constructing and reshaping collective memory. See Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning, eds. Cultural Memory Studies: An International and Interdisciplinary Handbook (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2008), 389–90. In Erll’s theory, symbols play a crucial role in cultural memory by acting as carriers of shared meanings and collective identities. Symbols, whether in the form of literary motifs, metaphors, or recurring themes, serve as tools for encoding, transmitting, and preserving cultural memory. They connect individual experiences to collective frameworks, providing a shared language through which communities remember and interpret the past. By embedding symbols within narratives, literature helps sustain and reshape cultural memory across time and space. For example, Erll explains that symbols in literature often function as “memory triggers” evoking specific historical or cultural associations while also being open to reinterpretation in different contexts. This dual nature of symbols allows literature to engage dynamically with cultural memory, reinforcing established narratives or challenging them to create new meanings. See Astrid Erll, Memory in Culture, trans. Sara B. Young (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 29, 32. discourse knot,¹¹Flows of discourse that center on a common topic is called discourse strands. Each discourse strand comprises several sub-topics, which can be summarized into groups of sub-topics. Every discourse strand has a diachronic and a synchronic dimension. A synchronic cut through a discourse strand is always also a diachronic one, because each topic has a genesis, a historical a priori. When analyzing an issue, the analyst has to keep an eye on its history.  A statement where several discourses are entangled is called a discursive knot. See Siegfried Jäger, Von der Ideologiekritik zur Diskurs- und Dispositivanalyse – Theorie und Methodische Praxis Kritischer Diskursanalyse. In Diskurs-Sprache-Wissen (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2013), 199–211; Siegfried Jäger and Franz Maier, “Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of Foucauldian Critical Discourse Analysis and Dispositive Analysis,” in Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (London: Sage, 2009), 34–61. overarching social discourse, and global discourse, collective symbols.¹²Collective symbols are often cultural stereotypes that can be interpreted by members of a society with the power of their own imagery. In fact, society perceives reality through the mediating of images produced by symbols. Collective symbols are often used in the media to interpret reality via image fractures. See Jäger, 199–211.

Figure 1: A collection of children’s book covers by Shukūh Qāsimniyā

Shukūh Qāsimniyā in a Snapshot

Shukūh Qāsimniyā was born in Tehran in 1334/1955, and was the sixth child in a family of five sons. At the age of six, she entered Iran Kindergarten, followed the next year by Iran Elementary School and continuing through to Iran High School. Despite her strong interest in humanities, a change of residence necessitated her enrollment in a high school that did not offer humanities, thereby compelling her to choose mathematics instead. She later took the entrance examination and was admitted to the Political Science program at the National University (now Shahīd Bihishtī University of Tehran). She completed her studies and earned a Bachelor’s degree in Political Science in 1358/1979, just prior to the onset of the Cultural Revolution¹³The Islamic Revolution in February 1979, followed by the establishment of the Islamic Republic system in Iran, brought about drastic changes in all aspects of society. Imam Khomeini’s New Year’s Message on March 21, 1980 must be taken as a turning point in the history of the cultural revolution. Paragraph eleven of his message demands “revolutionizing all universities across the country”, “firing university professors linked to the East or West”, and “developing the universities into a safe environment for authoring and teaching higher Islamic sciences”. Upon the formal shutting down of the universities, on June 12, 1980 Ayatollah Khomeini issued a declaration for establishment of Cultural Revolution Headquarters, part of which reads: “It is for some time the need for cultural revolution – that is an Islamic issue requested by the Muslim nation – has been highlighted but little has been done in this regard. The Muslim nation, especially the faithful and dedicated university students are concerned about this. They have also expressed concerns on sabotage of the conspirators, instances of which raises its head now and then. The Muslim nation are worried the chance might be missed without any positive work, so that the culture might remain the same as in the past corrupt regime. During the past regime, this fundamentally important center had been put at the disposal of the colonial powers by uncultured and uneducated employers. Sustainability of this catastrophe that is the wish of some groups affiliated to foreign powers, will send a deadly shock throughout the Islamic Revolution and Islamic Republic of Iran. Any moderation in this vital issue is a grave treachery against Islam and against this Muslim country” (Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, accessed November 27, 2024, https://sccr.ir/pages/10257/2.2). and the subsequent closure of the universities. Following her graduation, Qāsimniyā established a private kindergarten in her father’s home, naming it ʿAmmah Jūn a nod to her role as an aunt to several children.¹⁴Shukūh Qāsimniyā, “Naqd va barrisī: Namāy-i nāzdīk; Āsār-i bartarīn’hā-yi jashnvārah-yi buzurg-i barguzīdigān-i adabiyyāt-i kūdak va nawjavānān” [Critique and review: Close-up; Works of the top winners of the grand festival of children’s and adolescents’ selection], Pajūhish’nāmah-yi adabiyyāt-i kūdak va nawjavānān 36 (1383/2004), 199.

Her impetus to engage in children’s poetry and fiction was profoundly influenced by her observations of young children within her preschool environment, in which the children’s exuberance and spontaneous enthusiasm were palpable. She meticulously crafted poems tailored for these children, presenting them in recitations that were met with eager reception and enthusiastic memorization. Moreover, she devised and narrated stories that captivated the children’s imaginations. Consequently, these young audiences emerged as her primary encouragers in the field of children’s poetry and fiction.¹⁵Qāsimniyā, “Naqd va barrisī,” 199.

Her professional trajectory experienced a transformation through her participation in the inaugural children’s literature seminar organized by the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults. Initially, her attendance at this seminar was motivated by a desire to acquire insights that would benefit the children in her preschool. She then encountered an unexpected opportunity that led her to engage with the magazine Kayhān-i Bachchah‘hā, prompting her to resign from her position at her preschool and to establish a significant presence in Kayhān-i Bachchah‘hā. The following year, she proposed the development of dedicated pages for elementary school children to the magazine’s editor. This proposal was well-received, culminating in the creation of the Shāpārak supplement as a section of Kayhān-i Bachchah‘hā. Shukūh Qāsimniyā personally authored all content in this supplement, encompassing stories, poetry, jokes, and other forms of entertainment.  Qāsimniyā, who has held editorial positions and contributed to publications such as Kayhān-i Bachchah‘hā, Shāparak, and Rushd-i Kūdak, considers her experience with Gulāk (1396/1990¹⁶Personal communication of Soudabeh Shokrollahzadeh with Qāsimniyā, November 26, 2024.) the most fulfilling and delightful of her career.¹⁷Qāsemniyā, “Naqd va barrisī,” 119–20.

  Qāsimniyā’s career has been marked by a rich and fulfilling body of work, encompassing nearly 400 stories and poems for children. In the field of children’s poetry, she has been consistently engaged with contemporary media, including television and cinema. Her poems, featured in television series such as Gunjishkak-i ashī mashī, Mahallah-yi bihdāsht, and ʿAmū Pūrang, have left indelible imprints on Iranians’ collective memories.¹⁸Pūrān Farrukhzād, Kār-namā-yi zanān-i kārāy-i Irān: Az dīrūz tā imrūz [The record of the sedulous women of Iran: From yesterday to today] (Tehran: Qatrah, 1381/2002), 628–30. She is a seminal figure among the pioneering cohort of children’s poets who emerged after the Islamic Revolution. As Rajabzādah states, her contributions, in concert with those of her contemporaries, have been instrumental in augmenting the stature of children’s poetry. Qāsimniyā’s innovation as a post-revolutionary poet lies in her use of colloquial verse, a significant departure from traditional poetic forms, which has subsequently influenced poets such as Asad Allāh Shaʿbānī, Afsānah Shaʿbān-Nizhād, and Nāsir Kishāvarz.¹⁹Asad Allāh Shaʿbānī, Afsānah Shaʿbān-Nizhād, and Nāsir Kishāvarz are renowned contemporary Iranian children’s poets. She has traversed various poetic phases throughout her career. In the initial phase, covering the early years of her poetry, she crafted verses for both very young children and adolescents. During this period, her poetry was in harmony with the prevailing trends in children’s and adolescent literature, which were influenced by Mahmūd Kiyānūsh.²⁰Mahmūd Kiyānūsh was a poet, writer, translator, and critic who had a bachelor’s degree in English. He started his career as a teacher and later worked at the Ministry of Economy. Alongside creating literary works for adults, Kiyānūsh was involved in children’s literature, contributing to Payk magazine and being an active member of the Children’s Book Council. He produced numerous works, particularly in the realm of children’s and adolescent poetry. Kiyānūsh is recognized as one of the most serious poets for children and was one of the few who wrote poetry for children before the revolution. In contrast to the didactic and moralistic focus of poetry at the time, Kiyānūsh saw children as individuals with unique needs and sought to understand them on their own terms, separate from those of adults. With a deep respect for children’s imaginations, he aimed to explore topics that would resonate with them. His poems were written with an aesthetic sensibility crafted through the eyes of children and for their enjoyment. In 1973, Kiyānūsh published Children’s Poetry in Iran, which became his most important work and the first serious theoretical contribution to children’s literature in the country. In this book, he outlined the essential characteristics of children’s poetry: simplicity, naturalness, contemporaneity, and clarity; a focus on real-life topics that children can relate to; avoidance of abstraction; and the use of the quatrain form. These principles became a guiding framework for poets in the field of children’s and young adult literature after the revolution, and had a lasting influence on the development of children’s poetry in the years that followed. See Mahmūdī, 1392/2013, 195–6. Despite the absence of significant ups and downs in her early poetry, her influence on the works of her contemporaries in children’s poetry remains prominent.²¹Shahrām Rajabzādah, “Shish hāshīyah bar shiʿr’hā-yi Shukūh Qasimniyā” [Six commentaries on the poems of Shukūh Qasimniyā], Nashrīyah-yi pazhūhish’nāmah-yi adabiyyāt-i kūdak va nawjavānān 36 (1383/2004), 203–15.

According to Rajabzādah’s categorization of her literary work, Qāsimniyā’s entry into Gulāk, a magazine for young children, marks a key turning point in her career. During this period, she ventured into a distinctly new trajectory, audaciously embracing the creation of colloquial poetry for very young children despite facing prevailing resistance. She not only pioneered this approach but also inspired several fellow poets to explore this innovative path. In this phase, Qāsimniyā departed from conventional formal language and sought a more intimate communicative mode that would resonate more deeply with preschoolers. By leveraging the characteristics of nursery rhymes and folkloric poetry, she integrated herself into the domain of colloquial children’s poetry. This era marks the commencement of what would become her most profound, fertile, and influential poetic phase. The salient features of this period include the emergence and articulation of genuine childhood emotions and the discovery of novel perspectives through the perceptive and nuanced lens of young audiences.²²Rajabzādah, “Shish hāshīyah bar shiʿr’hā-yi Shukūh Qasimniyā,” 203–15.

Qāsimniyā offers a distinctive perspective on children’s poetry, particularly for very young children. She maintains that a children’s poet must continuously engage in learning and acquiring new experiences. ‘Each day, the poet must confront and reassess previously held beliefs and commitments. Authenticity should be the guiding principle, and the purity of thought must be preserved. Poets must shed the arrogance of adulthood and avoid claiming that things are fixed and unchangeable. Instead, they should explore the subtleties of the vast world of children, constantly seeking fresh ideas, expressions, and experiences.  Qāsimniyā asserts that poetry for young children must not only reflect the child’s world in its content but also correspond to the child’s developmental stage in its form. Poets writing for children below school age must be highly attuned to the specific desires and needs of their audience. This attentiveness might sometimes require deviating from conventional principles. Poetry for very young children should be engaging enough to be recited frequently and should stimulate a lasting interest in poetry rather than merely existing on the pages of a book. Such poetry must have a rhythm and melody that prompt physical responses, such as clapping, dancing, and nodding along to the beat. It should use familiar and heartfelt language suited to young children. Moreover, the subject matter must be drawn from the child’s own world, not imposed by adults. Finally, it must retain the essence of poetry, enhancing the delicate mental landscape of its young readers. Qāsimniyā believes that texts meeting the first three criteria but lacking the fourth are not truly poetry; they may be songs or narrative poems but do not fully belong to the realm of genuine children’s poetry.²³Shukūh Qāsimniyā, Māh va māhī [Moon and fish] (Tehran: Qadyānī, 1371/1992), 2–3.

Qāsimniyā’s Poetry in the Geography of Contemporary Iranian Cultural Memory

While Qāsimniyā preserves the childlike essence and aesthetic quality of her poems as a core principle, aspects of cultural memory also play central roles in her work. Her poetry serves as a conduit for preserving and transmitting Iran’s cultural heritage across generations. The following section discusses how her poems are situated and understood within the broader context of Iranian cultural memory.

A) Islamic Revolution and Iraq-Iran War

The Islamic Revolution of Iran (1357/1979) had a profound impact on not only the political and economic dimensions of Iranian society but also its social and cultural spheres, particularly the field of children’s literature. In this context, Hajvānī notes that the first decade following the Revolution saw a significant increase in the number of press outlets, allowing for dedicated poetry columns and thereby providing a greater space for poetry to thrive. He also observes that during this period, both the quality and quantity of literary works increased. However, alongside the publication of relatively high-quality pieces came a rise in weaker, more superficial, and more ideologically driven works. To support this argument, Hajvānī cites Mustafā Rahmāndūst, an Iranian children’s poet, who notes that the first decade following the Revolution saw the publication of 200 children’s poetry books, compared to just 37 before 1979. Hajvānī argues that despite the quantitative growth and relative improvement in the quality of children’s poetry in Iran, this development occurred without the benefit of literary criticism or theory. Instead, it was largely self-sustained and experiential, drawing on the legacy of Mahmūd Kiyānūsh—especially his use of the quatrain form—and centered on themes of childhood nostalgia and rural life.²⁴Mahdī Hajvānī, “Farāz va furūd’hā-yi shiʿr-i Kūdak va shiʿr-i Nawjavān-i Irān dar si dahah pas az Inqilāb.” [Ups and downs of children’s and adolescents’ poetry in Iran in the three decades following the Revolution], Adab-i Fārsī 5, no. 1 (1394/2015): 85–6. The increase in children’s book publications, including poetry, in post-revolutionary Iran can be attributed to several factors, according to Laetitia Nanquette. First, children’s books were seen as less susceptible to censorship because they could avoid sensitive political or moral topics, allowing for more freedom of expression. Second, they were viewed as essential tools for the Islamic Republic to shape a new Islamic being through early education, aligned with the broader cultural revolution. These books became a strategic means to instill Islamic values in the younger generation.²⁵Laetitia Nanquette, Iranian Literature after the Islamic Revolution: Production and Circulation in Iran and the World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021), 145–6.

Qāsimniyā began composing her earliest poems in the 1980s, a decade defined by the upheavals of revolution and war in Iran. Naturally, the poetry of that period bore the imprint of the era’s religious, revolutionary, and wartime sensibilities. In this charged environment, Qāsimniyā published her first professional piece in Kayhān-i Bachchah’hā; it was dedicated to Saʿīd Kāshānī, a member of the magazine’s editorial team who was martyred in the Iraq-Iran War. Deeply influenced by the atmosphere of the period, some of her work centered on themes of revolution and war. A notable example is her poem “Būy-i gol-i nāranj” (The fragrance of orange blossoms),²⁶Shukūh Qāsimniyā, Būy-i gul-i nāranj [The scent of bitter orange blossoms] (Tehran: Nahād-i hunar va adabiyyāt, 1368/1989), 12. which poignantly captures these motifs:

Those days, how memorable they were / The days of fire and smoke / When each person was a link / In the chain that bound us / Those days when everyone said / This is the peak of the revolution / The traces of bullets, the smell of gunpowder / The path of flowers and rosewater.²⁷یادش بخیر آن روزگاران/ آن روزهای آتش و دود/  آن روزگارانی که هرکس/ یک حلقه از زنجیر ما بود/ آن روزگارانی که هر کس/ می‌گفت اوج انقلاب است/رد گلوله، بوی باروت/رد گل و گلاب

The central issue of the sociological “strong program,” inspired by Halbwachs’s perspective, is the cultural reinterpretation of “collective trauma.” In this reinterpretation, the emphasis shifts away from individual psychological processes to focus on the collective response to injury. Humans have fundamental needs for security, order, love, and social connection. When events occur that severely disrupt these needs, it is unsurprising that people perceive such events as traumatic, according to this theoretical framework.²⁸Jeffrey C. Alexander and Philip Smith, “The Strong Program: Origins, Achievements, and Prospects,” in Handbook of Cultural Sociology, edited by Jeffrey C. Alexander, Ronald Jacobs, and Philip Smith (London: Routledge, 2010), 13–24. Jeffrey C. Alexander provides an extensive analysis of the nature and consequences of cultural trauma in human societies, such as the devastation and harm caused by revolutions and war, particularly acts of mass violence. For scholars of war, the tragedy of the Holocaust is often regarded as a paradigmatic and universal example; however, the urban warfare and chemical attacks carried out by the Ba’athist regime against Iranian civilians during the Iraq-Iran War can also be considered one of the most prominent examples of such trauma.²⁹Jeffrey C. Alexander, Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

With the onset of the Iraq-Iran war and the resulting cultural traumas and disruptions, children’s cinema was profoundly affected, such that some scholars have characterized this era as the period of “little soldiers.”³⁰Amir Ali Nujūmiyān, “Constructing Childhood in Modern Iranian Children’s Cinema: A Cultural History,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Children’s Film and Television, ed. Casie Hermansson and Janet Zepernick (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 279–94. In the 1360s/1980s, puppet cinema became a driving force in children’s cinema. Kāmbīz Samīmī Mufakkham, a professor at the University of Tehran and a key artist and founder of the Iranian Puppet Theater Association, as well as a director at the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, played a pivotal role, working closely with influential filmmakers such as Marzīyah Burūmand, Masʿūd Kirāmātī, and Muhammad-Rizā Hunarmand, and distinguished poets such as Shukūh Qāsimniyā.³¹Pūpak Azīmpūr, “Kāmbīz samīmī mufakhkham,” World Encyclopedia of Puppetry Art (2013). https://wepa.unima.org/en/kambiz-samimi-mofakham/. During the final years of the war, Samīmī Mufakkham selected the folk tale Gunjishkak-i ashī mashī for a media adaptation. He chose Qāsimniyā to rework this folk tale, which had previously been interpreted in various ways, into a song, rooted in protest and political themes associated with Marxist intellectuals. Qāsimniyā was tasked not only with adaptation of this folktale, but also with authoring all parts of the production.

The term “Ashī mashī” in the Kāzirūnī dialect is a contraction of “Shāh manshīn,” which designates someone who is not aligned with the king. This term seems to be used ironically to describe an individual who neither supports the king nor seeks his favour, but rather maintains a noble-minded and self-respecting demeanour. The figures of the farrāsh-bāshī (head servant), qassāb-bāshī (chief butcher), āshpaz-bāsh (head cook), and hakīm-bāshī (chief physician; in this poem, it refers to the king) are collective symbols in Gunjishkak-i ashī mashī. The character Ashī Mashī can be seen as a symbol of the Iranian common folk, while the farrāsh-bāshī and hakīm-bāshī represent the government, and other figures symbolize various social classes. However, Shukūh Qāsimniyā’s version appears to be imbued with moral issues, particularly in condemnation of hypocrisy, as evident in the following excerpt:

No color can match the hues of my wings / I wish to laugh heartily a thousand times / For my sorrows have ended / And all turned out well in the end / Thank God, I finally achieved my dreams / Once again, in the mirror of the water / I saw my beautiful colours reflected.³²هیچ رنگی، رنگ‌های پرهام نمی‌شه/می‌خواهم بخندم از ته دل هزاربار/که غصه‌هام تمام شد/بخیر شد آخر کار/شکر خدا که عاقبت به آرزوهام رسیدم/دوباره  در آینة آب رنگ قشنگم رو دیدم.

This poem can also represent the discursive nexus that intertwines revolutionary and Marxist discourses, embodying the identity of Iran during that era. This puppet series is considered one of the most influential cultural productions for children in the post-revolutionary era.

B) Religion

In the history of Persian literature, religious literature flourished during the Safavīd period, and dominated the literary and artistic circles until the Constitutional Revolution.³³Abū al-Qāsim Rādfar, Kitābshanāsī-yi adabiyāt-i dawrah-yi safavīyah [Bibliography of Safavid era literature] (Tehran: Muʾassisah-yi taʾlīf, tarjumah, va nashr-i āsār-i hunarī-yi matn, 1390/2011). However, following the 1357/1979 Revolution and the subsequent dominance of resistance literature within literary circles and institutions, religious literature experienced a revival and re-emergence within the cultural sphere.³⁴Alī-Asghar Saydābādī, Sarguzasht-i shiʿr dar Īrān [The history of poetry in Iran] (Tehran: Ufuq, 1392/2013). On the other hand, Revolutionary intellectuals and scholars with an Eastern orientation, such as Ihsān Sharīʿatī and Jalāl Āl-i Ahmad, opposed the Marxist intellectual discourse and revitalized religious literature.³⁵ʿAbd al-Rasūl Shākirī, Masʿūd Farahmandfar, and Nāsir Āqābābāī, “Māh va māhī: Tahlīl-i farhangī-yi ravān-shināsī-yi sunnat-i ʿārifānah va ravābit-i āshiqānah dar ghazal-i Fārsī” [The moon and the fish: A cultural and psychological analysis of the mystical tradition and romantic relationships in Persian ghazal], Ravān-shināsī-yi farhangī 5, no. 2 (1400/2021), 79–96. Authors of post-Revolutionary children’s literature, influenced by these currents, increasingly engaged with religious concepts such as God, the Qurʾān, prayer, fasting, the Imāms, Karbalā, and ʿĀshūrā.³⁶ʿIrfān Nazarāhārī, Dar shiʿr-i nawjavān-i mā gurgī dar kamīn nīst: Barrisī-yi muzūʿī-yi shiʿr’hā-yi 16 shāʿir-i kūdak va nawjavānān 1377–1360 [In our adolescent poetry, there is no wolf in ambush: A thematic study of the poems of 16 child and adolescent poets, 1981–1983], Pajūhish’nāmah-yi adabiyyāt-i kūdak va nawjavānān 21 (1379/2000). Moreover, it appears that the flourishing of the Razavī³⁷In Iran, institutions such as the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults and the International Imām Riza Cultural and Artistic Foundation actively promote Islamic culture for children, with a focus on Imām Riza, the eighth Shiʿa Imām. One of their notable initiatives is the organization of children’s and young adult literature festivals highlighting poetry and other works inspired by Imām Riza’s legacy, often referred to as Razavī culture. The International Imām Riza Cultural and Artistic Foundation has also developed a comprehensive strategic plan outlining its mission, goals, and strategies for nurturing and preserving this cultural heritage through various mediums, including poetry. See the foundation’s official website at https://www.shamstoos.ir/sher-koodak-festival-21/. poetic tradition, which itself has been influenced by religious discourses, has further spurred the composition of religious poetry by Qāsimniyā and other poets. The significance of this event is demonstrated by the fifteen National Razavī Children’s and Adolescent Poetry Festivals that have been held to date. The poem “Gharq-i nūr ast u talā / Gunbad-i zard-i Rizā” stands out as one of the most evocative children’s poems in this tradition following the Iranian Revolution. Composed in the early 1360s/1980s, it was initially published in Kayhān-i Bachchah‘hā and was incorporated into primary-school textbooks in the 1370s/1990s. It has also been extensively produced and broadcasted by the Iranian National Broadcasting Service in the form of music videos. This poem features two significant collective symbols, the dome of Imām Riza and the dove, and incorporates elements from the centuries-old traditions of pilgrimage rites (ziyārat) in Iran. In Persian folk literature, the dove, as shown in the passage quoted below, serves as a symbol not only of the pilgrim but also of the devout and light-hearted believer.³⁸Muhammad Kāzimī Jurūkānī, “Istilāhāt-i kabūtar dar farhang va adabiyyāt-i fārsī va farhang-i āmmah” [Terms for the dove in Persian culture, literature, and folklore], Tārīkh’nāmah-yi Khwārazmī 41 (1402/2023). It should also be noted that the work intricately intertwines the Iranian identity with the discursive threads of Shiʿa Islamism and Marxism in that era, reflecting a complex confluence of these ideological strands:

O God, if only I were / A dove / On this golden dome / I would rest joyfully / I would flap my wings / Around the shrine / From my heart/ it would fly / Mourning and sorrow and grief³⁹ای خدا کاش که من /یک کبوتر بودم/روی این گنبد زرد/شاد می­آسودم/می‌زدم بال و  پری/دور تا دور حرم/از دلم پر می‌زد/ماتم و غصه و غم

During the wartime years, Marxist intellectuals and literary figures progressively distanced from the prevailing Revolutionary discourse. As Revolutionary institutions increasingly sought the engagement of younger forces, they extended a warm reception to literary figures and poets, especially those from the younger generations.⁴⁰Mahdī Hajvāni, “Farāz va furūd’hā-yi shiʿr-i kūdak va shiʿr-i nawjavān-i Īrān dar si dahah pas az inqilāb” [Ups and downs of children’s and adolescents’ poetry in Iran in the three decades following the Revolution], Adab-i Fārsī 5, no. 1 (1394 /2015), 81–100. On the other hand, the focus of government and Revolutionary institutions during this period of Qāsimniyā’s life, in light of the Supreme Leader’s emphasis on the education of children based on Islamic ethical principles, was directed towards fostering this moral framework. Concurrently, as the intensity of the Baʿathist army’s assaults on the war fronts escalated, the social atmosphere became increasingly receptive to resistance discourse, and both literary works and television series with resistance themes were produced. Consequently, Shiʿa Islamism evolved into a dominant social discourse, positioning itself in opposition to the global Cold War rhetoric.

The close of the twentieth century saw transformative developments that spurred the waves of globalization and heralded the end of the Cold War, but produced both positive and negative effects. Some scholars in the sociology of religion argue that the proliferation of secularism represents one of the darker facets of this process. The concept of a Janus-faced process in the context of globalization and the post-Cold War transformations highlights the dual nature of these changes, marked by both constructive and destructive dimensions. This framework is particularly significant in understanding the late twentieth-century developments, as globalization simultaneously fostered interconnectedness and economic opportunities while exacerbating inequalities and cultural dislocations. Scholars often analyze the duality of globalization through lenses such as economic integration, sociocultural homogenization, and the proliferation of secularism. The bright side of globalization includes advancements in technology, increased cultural exchange, and economic growth, whereas the dark side is characterized by erosion of local traditions, economic exploitation, and a perceived decline in spiritual and moral values. In the sociology of religion, some scholars have seen the rise of secularism as emblematic of the darker outcomes of globalization, arguing that it diminishes religious cohesion and undermines cultural identities.⁴¹See Peter L. Berger, A Rumour of Angels: Modern Society and the Rediscovery of the Supernatural, 1st ed. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971). In this line, Casanova critiques secularism as a Eurocentric framework that often marginalizes religious traditions, particularly in non-Western contexts, and emphasizes the complex interplay between secularization and globalization in reshaping cultural and religious identities.⁴²José Casanova, Global Religious and Secular Dynamics: The Modern System of Classification. (Leiden: Brill, 2019) 112–134. Additionally, Casanova discusses how globalization can exacerbate religious and cultural tensions by imposing secular norms, which might erode local religious traditions and identities while fostering resistance in diverse societies.⁴³José Casanova, Beyond Secularization: Religious and Secular Dynamics in Our Global Age (Washington, DC: Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, 2017). This dynamic is part of the broader critique of secularism as simultaneously a globalizing and homogenizing force, which may overlook or suppress the cultural specificities of religion in different societies.⁴⁴See Jeffrey Haynes, “Religious Globalism,” in The Oxford Handbook of Global Studies, edited by Mark Juergen Meyer, Saskia Sassen, et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 459–74; Murat Somer, “The Janus-Faced Relation of Religious Actors and Human Security: Islamic and Secular Values in Turkey,” in Religion and Human Security: A Global Perspective, edited by James K. Wellman and Clark Lombardi (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

The darker aspect of globalization can be seen in homogenizing cultural trends, with the spread of secularism often regarded as one such trend. The rise of global secularization led to resistance in the Muslim world in general and Iran in particular, which prompted the emergence of Islamic revivalist movements. In the face of the challenges and disruptions caused by globalization, various literary and cultural groups in Iran have embarked on a path of revival, striving to sustain and perpetuate the country’s rich cultural traditions. The revivalist current in children’s literature was among these significant currents confronting the repercussions of privatizing the cultural sphere.

The revivalist movement faced challenges, such as reduced support from government bodies like the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in the post-war period, the shutdown of state-owned specialized children’s magazines, and insufficient backing from national broadcasters and the Institute for the Promotion of Children’s Cinema and Poetry. These challenges led to a decline in poetry and songwriting for children. Among other ramifications was the stagnation of poetry following the war and the influence of translated works. Unlike the revivalist poets, young poets and the new generation did not favour poems and songs based on the styles, content, and rhythms of classical, religious, and folk literature. Consequently, facing a lack of institutional support, revivalist poets relied on personal funding to establish smaller magazines and forums.⁴⁵Hajvāni, “Farāz va furūd’hā-yi shiʿr-i.” , (1394/2015), 83

Following the successful reception of her poem “Gharq-i nūr ast va talā / Gunbad-i zard-i rizā,” Qāsimniyā continued to compose numerous other religious poems. While some of these demonstrate greater sophistication in imagery and rhythm than the aforementioned work, they have not achieved the same level of acclaim or success. Some of her more recent works, including religious and mystical poems, are discussed below.

“Faqat Yakī” (Only one)⁴⁶Shukūh Qāsimniyā, Dāman-i chīn-chīnī :Varchīnk-i shiʿr-i khurdsālān [The frilled skirt: A collection of children’s verses] (Tehran: Amīrkabīr, kutub-i shukūfah, 1392/2013), 25. is centered on a fundamental tenet of the Muslim religion—Monotheism—and incorporates various Qur’anic references, including the first verse of Sūrah al-Ikhlās. In this poem, through a seemingly ordinary dialogue, a young girl and her mother engage in a spiritual discussion about God:

Mother says: My dear / God is unlike anything else / He has no likeness or equal / For God is only One⁴⁷مامان می‌گه:عزیز من/خدا شبیه هیچی نیست/شبیه و همتا نداره/چون که خدا فقط یکی‌ست

“Duʿā” (Prayer)⁴⁸Qāsimniyā, Dāman-i chīn-chīnī, 26. not only alludes to divine attributes and Quʾranic verses but also emphasizes prayer as an ancient rite of healing:⁴⁹ʿAlīrizā Malikrāh, Āyīn’hā-yi shafā (Mabāhisī dar mardum-shināsī-yi pizishkī: Jang, qudrat, bīmārī) [Healing rituals: Topics in medical anthropology: War, power, disease] (Tehran: Afkār, 1387/2008).

I wish to converse with you. / Can my voice reach up there? / My mother has fallen ill / Please cure her immediately⁵⁰می‌خواهم با تو حرف بزنم/صدام می‌آد تا اون بالا؟/مامان من مریض شده/خوبش بکن همین حالا

“Az āsimūn tā injā” (From the sky to here)⁵¹Shukūh Qāsimniyā, Khudā kujāst? (Az majmū’ah-yi shi’r-i ‘Az āsimūn tā injā’), [Where is God? (From the poetic collection ‘From the sky to here’] (Tehran: Kānūn-i parvarish-i fikrī-yi kūdakān va nawjavānān, 1385/2006). addresses themes of personal conscience and innate nature (fitrah),⁵²The Islamic concept of fitrah refers to the innate nature or primordial disposition with which humans are created. It signifies a state of natural purity and an intrinsic inclination toward the worship of Allah (God), recognizing His existence, and living a life of moral righteousness. This concept emphasizes that every human being is born with an inherent understanding of good, truth, and the existence of a Creator. It is derived from the Quran, specifically verse 30 of Surah Al-Rum, which is famously known as the “Verse of Fitrah.” and explores the metaphor of God’s presence in the sky, which is prevalent across Persian classical literature as well as in the religious and ritualistic traditions of ancient Mesopotamian and Abrahamic religions.⁵³Mahdī Rizā’ī and Sayyed Hāshim Khātamī, “Istihārah-zudāʾī az vāzhah-yi āsmān dar ashʿār-i klasīk-i fārsī” [Demetaphorization of “sky” in Persian classic poems], Shʿir-pazhūhī (1395/ 2016) 8, no. 3, 71–94. In this work, the collective symbols of God and the child are depicted in dialogue with one another:

You tell me what is good / what action is ugly / You remind me if my deed / is right or wrong⁵⁴به من می‌گی چی خوبه/چه کاری، کاری زشتی‌ست/یادم می‌دی که کارم/درسته یا درست نیست

In “Khudā kujāst?” (Where is God?), Qāsimniyā sets the stage for the child’s spiritual discovery and weaves together themes of spiritual discovery with the innocence and curiosity of childhood. In a quiet moment of curiosity, a young child turns to their mother with a question that has been bubbling up inside: “Mom! Tell me, where is God?” The mother’s gentle smile reassures the child, and she replies softly, “God is in the hearts of people.” The child, eager to connect with this newfound understanding, places a hand on her heart and speaks with innocence and sincerity: “Hello, my dear God! If you hear my voice, please respond so that I know.” To the child’s amazement, a soft tapping sound is heard, a subtle yet profound indication of Divine presence. The child, filled with wonder, feels a sense of comfort and companionship. “God speaks with me,” the child thinks, realizing the kindness and ever-present nature of the Divine. This portrayal of a child’s encounter with God is a significant focus of Qāsimniyā’s work: transforming abstract theological concepts into tangible experiences for children.

Embedding the poet in a historical context, these poems appear to reflect the intersection of Islamism with the discourse of secularization. This interplay is influenced by the broader social discourse of traditionalism, which responds to the global trend of cultural homogenization. Traditionalism here refers to a social response or discourse aimed at resisting the cultural homogenization that is often associated with globalization. This type of traditionalism reflects a defence of cultural and religious identity against the perceived erosion caused by secularization or Western modernity.

C) Folklore

Most scholars of memory studies regard folk literature as a vital artery within the cultural sphere for the preservation and transmission of cultural heritage.⁵⁵Hendrik van Gorp and U. Musarra-Schroeder, “Introduction: Literary genres and cultural memory,” in Genres as Repositories of Cultural Memory, edited by Theo D’haen et al. (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), i–ix. Lorna Hutchison and Heather Snell, Children and Cultural Memory in Texts of Childhood (New York: Routledge, 2014), 47–87. By embedding stories, songs, and sayings in the collective consciousness, folk literature stabilizes cultural memory, ensuring continuity, and a shared sense of identity. Within this context, Qāsimniyā’s poetry stands out, as she masterfully weaves elements of folk literature such as folktales, lullabies, songs, and language games into her work, anchoring her verses in the rich cultural memory of Iran. Her works in this vein have even influenced other young poets. As previously mentioned, one of the consequences of cultural privatization has been the closure of children’s publications. Qāsimniyā played a significant role in the revivalist current by founding the magazine Gulāk and encouraging young poets to write in colloquial language, thereby contributing substantially to the resurgence of folk literature within children’s literature.⁵⁶Rajabzādah, “Shish hāshīyah bar shiʿr’hā-yi Shukūh Qasimniyā,” 203–15. As a literary figure, she not only created influential works, but also actively engaged in cultural advocacy through the establishment of the magazine, dedicated to the revitalization and recreation of folk narratives. Her efforts in this domain represent crucial steps toward preserving and transmitting cultural heritage and shaping cultural memory. Qāsimniyā’s Hīchānah, or nonsense poetry,⁵⁷The Persian word hīchanih is sometimes translated as nonsense. In children’s literature, it is categorized into two forms: folkloric (traditional) and literary. Folkloric Hīchānah, characterized by cheerful rhythms and a playful freedom from semantic constraints, often create moments of joy and playfulness for children. Shukūh Qāsimniyā’s Hīchānah are examples of the literary type that successfully emulate the folkloric style. See Murtizā Khusrunizhad et al., Farhang-i adabiyāt-i kūdak [Children’s literature encyclopedia], unpublished manuscript. exemplifies an engagement with elements from folk literature as, in her work, she adeptly incorporates the rhythmic structures, rhyme schemes, thematic content, auditory resonances, cadences, and emotional textures that are characteristic of folk traditions. These features harmoniously correspond with the nature of childhood experiences, making her poetry innately captivating for young audiences and perpetually delightful across various temporal contexts. This intrinsic appeal is a pivotal factor in the sustained relevance of folk literature. By building upon these foundational elements, contemporary nonsense poetry not only reinforces the enduring nature of this literary form but also fosters a confluence with traditional folk literature. Consequently, the dialogue between past and present is articulated through the medium of nonsense poetry.

A contemporary instance of Qāsimniyā’s nonsense poetry inspired by folk literature is “Hājastam va Vājastam,” which is itself a nursery rhyme:

I didn’t lock the door / The house had a key / The cat took the key / The cat wasn’t there, it was a crow / The donkey was by the stove / The stove was in the garden / The garden belonged to my father / My father was on the roof / What a roof! How wonderful / Let’s count from one to ten⁵⁸در خونه رو نبستم/خونة ما کلید داشت/گربه کلید و برداشت/گربه نبود،کلاغ بود/الاغ سر اجاق بود/اجاق، میون باغ بود/باغه مال بابام بود/بابام، رو پشت بام بود/چه پشت بامی، به­به/ بشماریم از یک تا ده⁵⁹Shukūh Qāsimniyā “Hā-jastam va vā-jastam” in Hīch hīch hīchānah: 52 Shiʿr az haft shāʿir. [Nonsense, Nonsense, Nonsense: 52 Poems by Seven Poets]. (Tehran: Ufugh, 1389/2010), 91.

“Hā-jastam va vā-jastam” has been used by Qāsimniyā and other children’s authors as a foundational element of their work.⁶⁰For instance, see Muhammad-Hādī Muhammadī Hā-jastam va vā-jastam [I leaped once and leaped again] (Tehran: Intishārāt-i Muʿassisah-yi Pajuhishī-yi Tārīkh-i Adabiyāt-i Kūdakān, 1402/2023); Tāhirih Aybud, Hā-jastam va vā-jastam yak dastah ful tū dastam [I leaped once and leaped again, holding a bouquet of flowers in my hand] (Tehran: Kānūn-i Parvarish-i Fikrī-yi Kūdakān va Nawjavānān, 1400/2021); Afsānah Shaʿbān-Nizhād, hā-jastam va vā-jastam. [I leaped once and leaped again] (Tehran: Kānūn-i Parvarish-i Fikrī-yi Kūdakān va Nawjavānān, 1399/2020). This rhyme has also been transformed into a musical album produced by the Department of Cinema and Theater at the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, which received honours at the Global Music Awards.⁶¹https://www.kanoonnews.ir/news/335051/%D8%A2%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C-%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85-%D9%88-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B2-%D8%AC%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C

Qāsimniyā has also crafted numerous lullabies, a beloved, widely embraced, and often studied genre of folk literature, with “Dast kūchūlū, Pā kūchūlū” (Little hand, little foot)⁶²Qāsimniyā, Dāman-i chīn-chīnī, 16. exemplifying such a literary kind:

Little Hand, Little Foot / Don’t cry your father is coming / To the neighbours’ homes / Your cries can be heard / Are you hungry? / I will give you milk / Are you thirsty? / I will give you water / Are you sleepy? / Go to sleep / While I gently rock your cradle⁶³دست کوچولو، پا کوچولو/گریه نکن، بابات می آد/تا خونة همسایه‌ها/صدای گریه‌هات می‌آد/گُشنه شدی؟ شیرت بدم/تشنه شدی؟ آبت بدم/خوابت می‌آد؟ لالا بکن/تا من کمی تابت بدم

The Iranian Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature notes that lullabies are intended to soothe and lull infants and young children to sleep, and that they are a fundamental source of both poetry and music. Even before birth, we are familiar with the rhythmic rocking and lullabies, which mimic the repetitive beat of a heart heard within the womb; thus, our earliest musical and literary experiences have a biological basis. The act of singing a lullaby is often accompanied by physical gestures such as caressing, walking, rocking, or cradling. In its simplest form, a lullaby begins as a soft hum accompanied by a steady rhythm, which eventually gives rise to the first words: “Hush! Hush! Sleep, little one,” and other phrases intended to reassure the child that “Mother is near” or to evoke a sense of comfort, such as “I’ll rock you” and to express tenderness with phrases like “My dearest.”⁶⁴Murtiza Khusrawnizhād, et al., Farhang-i adabiyāt-i kūdak [Children’s literature encyclopedia], unpublished manuscript. “Little Hand, Little Foot” contains many of the essential elements found in traditional lullabies. The opening lines, addressing the child’s “little hands” and “little feet,” immediately establish an intimate and tender tone. The diminutive language used here emphasizes the vulnerability of the child and the gentle affection of the caregiver. This tenderness is further deepened by the reassurance that “your father will come,” a promise that seeks to calm the child’s fears and remind them of the protective presence of family, but at the same time also reflects the mother’s emotions about the father’s absence. In fact, lullabies were not solely used to achieve the tangible result of putting the child to sleep, but also served as an expression of the mother’s emotions.⁶⁵Khusrawnizhād, et al., Farhang-i adabiyāt-i kūdak. The final line, in which the caregiver promises to “rock you a little,” evokes the physical element of the lullaby tradition.

D) Nature

Qāsimniyā’s poetry draws deeply from the natural world, using nature as a symbol and a means of exploring cultural identity and collective memory. In fact, her depictions of nature, such as landscapes, plants, and animals, go beyond mere description and imbue these natural elements with layers of meaning that connect the individual experience to the broader cultural and historical fabric of Iranian society. They are linked to historical narratives, religious practices, and cultural values that have shaped the national consciousness. Astrid Erll’s theory of cultural memory provides a valuable framework for understanding how Qāsimniyā’s poetry functions within this cultural context. Erll defines cultural memory as how societies remember and reinterpret their past through symbols, practices, and cultural artifacts, such as literature. She emphasizes that cultural memory is not just about preserving the past but about actively reconstructing it in ways that keep it alive and relevant for each new generation. Through the use of symbols, cultural memory is passed on, continuously reactivated, and reinterpreted.⁶⁶Erll, Memory in Culture, 7. Moreover, Erll emphasizes the role of literature in cultural memory, describing it as a “memory-making medium” that mediates between individual and collective remembrance.⁶⁷Erll, Memory in Culture, 147. Literature, by using symbols and representations, helps individuals relate to the broader cultural memory of a society. In the case of Qāsimniyā’s poetry, her symbolic use of nature allows readers to engage with the collective cultural narrative in a personal way, making these symbols part of their own memory and identity. This process of engagement, where readers connect their own experiences with the cultural symbols presented in the poem, reflects the dynamic nature of cultural memory that Erll describes.

Qāsimniyā’s portrayals of nature reflect a fusion of sociocultural, religious, mystical, and literary traditions. Her poetry bears clear traces of the Persian classical tradition, particularly the works of poets renowned for their depictions of nature and the changing seasons. Across her oeuvre, these intersecting discourses often come to the forefront, with one or more taking prominence in individual poems. The following examples focus on the religious and mystical dimensions.

“Māh va Māhī” (“Moon and Fish”),⁶⁸Qāsimniyā, Māh va māhī. for instance, provides a rich exploration of mystical themes and the profound relationship between the divine and the natural world:

The fish was in a pleasant dream, / Dreaming of stars / Beneath its watery blanket / It gently smiled / A star from the clouds / Its gaze fell upon the fish / It descended / Falling into the blue pond / The fish awoke from its slumber / Saw the star’s gleam / And repeatedly wiggled its tail / Leaping this way and that⁶⁹ماهی تو خواب خوش بود/خواب ستاره می دید/زیر لحاف آبیش/یواش یواش می‌خندید/ستاره‌ای رو ابرا/نگاش به ماهی افتاد/اومد اومد پایین‌تر/تو حوض آبی افتاد/ماهی بیدار شد از خواب/برق ستاره رو دید/دمش رو هی تکون داد/این ور و اون ور پرید

This poem can be interpreted as a symbolic reflection of Rumi’s conceptualization of the fish, which he often uses as a metaphor for the mystic’s spiritual journey. For Rumi, the fish embodies various symbolic meanings, such as the mystic and the seeker of truth, the perfect human and the heavenly human, as well as a means of guidance. At times, it also takes on different connotations, such as those related to the earthly body and the worldly human.⁷⁰Parvīn Golīzādah, Mukhtār Ibrāhīmī, and Afsānah Saʿādatī, “Tahlīl-i māhī, yik namād-i maʿnawī dar Masnavī-yi Mawlavī” [Analysis of the fish: A spiritual symbol in Rumi’s Masnavi], Zībāyi-shināsī-yi Adabī 25 (1394/2015), 125. In this poem, the fish can symbolize a mystic, one who seeks to traverse the stages of the spiritual path to achieve self-realization. Through this journey of self-knowledge, the mystic ultimately attains a deeper understanding of the Divine.⁷¹Muzhgān Nīkūʾī, ʿAlīrizā Qujahzādah, Maʿsūmah Khudādādī Mahābādī, and Fātimih Kākāvand Qalʿah Nawʾī, “Tābīq-i mafhūmī namād-ī māhī dar asātīr-i Qurʾān va Masnavī-yi Maʿnavī va Kārbord-ī ān dar āsār-i hunarī” [A conceptual comparison of the symbol of the fish in mythology, the Qur’an, and Rumi’s Masnavī-yi Maʿnavī and its application in artistic works], Nashrīyah-yi Mutālaʻāt-i Hunar-i Islāmī 36 (1398/2019), 279. The fish’s dream of the star beneath its watery blanket illustrates the mystic’s inner aspiration for divine illumination, a connection to the ultimate truth beyond the immediate confines of the physical world. The star, descending from the clouds and into the pond, signifies divine grace or revelation, which awakens the mystic from the slumber of ordinary existence. This awakening reflects the transformative encounter with the Divine, a moment of epiphany that pulls the mystic from passive yearning into active engagement with the spiritual path. The fish’s joyful response, wiggling its tail and leaping about, embodies the ecstatic state of the mystic upon receiving a glimpse of divine light. In Rumi’s works, this movement often parallels the soul’s dance of love, a dynamic expression of its connection to the Divine source. The fish’s behaviour suggests the transcendence of boundaries both literal and metaphorical as it leaps out of the water, symbolizing the mystic’s desire to move beyond worldly confines in pursuit of the infinite.

The star, a symbol of beloved presence in some of Rumi’s poems, becomes a focal point in the fish’s spiritual vision. Upon awakening, the fish perceives the reflection of the star in the pond’s water, marking a moment of mystical revelation. This shift from dreaming to the tangible sight of the star’s reflection symbolizes the realization of spiritual aspirations and the direct encounter with Divine light. Such moments of revelation are central in mystical literature, representing the soul’s journey toward enlightenment.

In “Bābām shudah sitārah” (My father has become a star),⁷²Shukūh Qāsimniyā, Kalāgh par: Majmūʿah-yi shiʿr barā-yi kūdakān [The black crow: A collection of poems for children] (Tehran: Intishārāt-i kānūn-i parvarish-i fikri-yi kūdakān va nawjavānān, 1380/2001). Qāsimniyā draws upon elements of nature and the cosmos to offer solace for the loss of a young boy’s father, imbuing the concept of death with a mystical meaning:

My father has become a star / He points to me from the sky / Crows fly, sparrows fly / The stars of the night fly / With torn clouds / My father has become a travelling companion / Look over there / My father has become a dove / He has flown away from this air / To a better place / Crows fly, sparrows fly / The dove has flown from its cage / I am without a shadow / My father has gone from here / Look over there / To the far, to the far / See that my father / has become a boat of light / Crows fly, sparrows fly / The boat of light and night fly / From the sky / my father sent me a kiss / Look here / This is our wilted flower / I am not crying / My father is in the heavens / Crows fly, sparrows fly / The sorrows have left my heart / My father has gone from here / To a better place⁷³ابام شده ستاره/از آسمان می کنه/به سوی من اشاره/کلاغ پر ، گنجشک پر/ستاره های شب پر/با ابر پاره پاره/بابام شده همسفر/نگاه کن به آنجا/بابام شده کبوتر/پر زده از این هوا/به یک هوای بهتر/کلاغ پر ، گنجشک پر/کبوتر از قفس پر/سایه به سر ندارم/رفته از اینجا پدر/نگاه کن به آنجا/به آن دور به آن دور/ببین که بابام شده/سوار قایق نور/کلاغ پر گنجشک پر/قایق نور و شب پر/از آسمان برایم/بوسه فرستاد پدر/نگاه کن به اینجا/این گل پرپر ماست/گریه نمی کنم من/بابام تو آسمونهاست/کلاغ پر گنجشک پر/غصه ها از دلم پر/بابام رفته از اینجا/به یک هوای بهتر

In the poem, Qāsimniyā uses nature to help the speaker transcend personal grief and connect with broader spiritual or cosmic forces. The father’s transformation into a star, dove, and boat of light suggests a shift from earthly pain to a more ethereal, comforting idea of presence. This view resonates mystical transformation and a return to the Divine. Through its symbols of light, flight, and transformation, the poem explores themes of spiritual journey and return to the Divine light. The line “I am not crying / My father is in the heavens,” for instance, can express Rumi’s perspective on death as a forward movement, a form of existence and birth that transcends into a renewed life. It is not a state of annihilation, but rather a transition to a better existence. In other words, he perceives the ultimate fate of all beings as a return to God, with death being merely a means of ascension from a lower state to a higher one, a process of spiritual elevation. Rumi asserts that the universe, by its very nature, is on a path toward perfection, gaining greater abilities and discovering a better way of life. This journey toward a higher form of existence, which entails a more profound understanding and feeling, can only be realized through the transformative power of death.⁷⁴Zahrā Abbāsī and Amīn Khusravī, “Barrasī mafhūm-i takāmulī marg dar ashʿār-i Mawlānā bar asās-i nazaryi-yi istaʿārah-shinākhtī-yi mudil-i farhangī-yi istaʿārah-i zanjīrah-yi buzurg” [Studying the evolutionary concept of death in Rumi’s poetry based on cognitive metaphor theory in the cultural model of the great chain metaphor], Adabiyāt ‘irfānī (1396/2017), 25–6.

In general, Qāsimniyā’s poetry uses natural symbols as a powerful means of connecting personal experience with broader cultural traditions such as Iranian mysticism. In line with Astrid Erll’s theory of cultural memory, these symbols mediate the past and reinterpret it for contemporary audiences, so that literature acts as a memory-making medium.

Final Remarks

This article discusses the poetic landscape of Shukūh Qāsimniya as embedded in Iran’s cultural memory, by engaging with foundational concepts from theories of cultural memory. Qāsimniya’s contributions to children’s poetry resonate across four key dimensions within Iran’s cultural memory: revolution and war, religion, folklore, and nature. She is esteemed not only as a pioneering poet, but also as a crucial figure in the resurgence of post-Revolutionary Iranian children’s literature through her creative works and cultural activism. She has skillfully explored various genres within children’s literature, achieving notable acclaim particularly in poetry. Qāsimniyā has played a vital role in the revival of religious, folkloric, and nature-centric literature for children, thereby upholding and perpetuating a rich legacy of traditional discourses spanning several centuries; her endeavors constitute advancements in the preservation and reconstruction of Iran’s cultural memory. Through the creation of memorable poems broadcast on television and published in textbooks and children’s magazines, she has become an inseparable part of the post-Revolutionary generational memory of Iranians.

Since the establishment of the first television transmitter by the National Iranian Radio and Television Organization on October 3, 1337/1958, television has become one of the foremost media for governmental policy-making in Iran, in alignment with global television trends. This prominence is due to the extensive reach and high penetration of television among Iranian households, without the need for a subscription.⁷⁵Rizā Vāʿzī, Sidā va sīmā bi masābah-i dānishgāh: Ahdāf, masʾūliyat’hā, vazāʾif va rasālat’hā bar asās-i asnād-i bālādastī va didgāh-i rahbarī-yi inqilāb-i islāmī [The Islamic republic of Iran broadcasting as a university: Objectives, responsibilities, duties, and missions according to higher documents and the views of the Islamic Revolution leaders] (Tehran: Dānishgāh-i sida va sīmā, 1401/2022); David Morley, Television, mukhātab va mutāliʿāt-i farhangī [Television, audience, and cultural studies], trans. Sirwan Abdi (Tehran: Logos, 1399/2019); Joseph D. Straubhaar, Television-i jahānī (Bayn al-milalī tā mahalī) [Global television: International to local], trans. Sayyid Rizā Husaynī (Tehran: Īrān, 1394/2015); Peter Dahlgren, Television va gustarah-yi ʿumūmī: Jāmi’ah-yi madanī va rāsānah’hā-yi gurūhī [Television and the public sphere: Civil society and media], trans. Mahdī Shafaqatī (Tehran: Soroush, 1390/2011); Majīd Jafarī-Lahījānī, Hunar dar garmāgarm-i inqilāb: Sīnamā va tiliviziyun [Art in the heat of the revolution: Cinema and television] (Tehran: Pajūheshgāh-i farhang va ma’ārif-i islāmī, 1388/2009). With the onset of the war, Iranian cultural institutions prioritized the official memory policy, the state’s effort to control and shape collective memory through media and other cultural channels, particularly the resistance memory project.⁷⁶Abbās Verīj Kāẓemī, “Everyday Movements and Massive Socio-Cultural Shifts in Iran.” Critique 51, no. 1 (2023), 181–96; Parvāneh Karīmī, Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran: Interior Revolutions of the Modern Era (London: Routledge, 2013). Efforts were made to commemorate martyrs, establish memorials for combatants, and enhance Revolutionary discourse within children’s cinema. Notable television productions, including puppet shows, stories, films, and plays, were created for this end.⁷⁷See Vāizī; see also Jafarī-Lahījānī. These works provided significant platforms for young and gifted artists and writers. Against this backdrop, Shukūh Qāsimniyā emerged as a prominent contributor to the revival of children’s poetry in Iran.

Global studies on memory in children’s literature often reflect a Eurocentric and Western-centric perspective, as Snell and Hutchison⁷⁸Heather Snell and Lorna Hutchison, Children and Cultural Memory in Texts of Childhood (New York: Routledge, 2014). and Van Gorp and Musarra-Schroeder demonstrate.⁷⁹Hendrik Van Gorp and Ulla Musarra-Schroeder, “Introduction: Literary Genres and Cultural Memory,” in Genres as Repositories of Cultural Memory, edited by Theo D’haen (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), 1-9. This focus tends to marginalize non-Western viewpoints. However, emerging voices from Eastern countries, such as Iran, are beginning to offer fresh insights. Notably, the study of Shukūh Qāsimniyā’s poetry as a female Iranian poet contributes to this broader discourse, highlighting the diverse cultural and historical contexts of her work. These contributions challenge dominant narratives and enrich our understanding of memory in children’s literature globally. Her work not only revives the traditions, customs, and cultural heritage of Iran but also integrates contemporary discourses and social contexts. This integration facilitates the transmission, preservation, and re-evaluation of past values, discourses, and sociocultural narratives while acknowledging contemporary cultural shifts. As a result, Qāsimniyā’s work contributes to shaping the collective identity of children, bridging historical continuity with contemporary relevance. Indeed, due to her extensive body of work, her cultural activism, and the dynamic interplay of cultural influences, Qāsimniyā should be regarded as a key figure in the contemporary geography of Iran’s cultural memory.